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Urban Landscapes.... |
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| Here is a college sophomore report on urban landscapes. I procrastinated until the night or two before it was due. Bad bad bad! |
Often, urban dwellers long for a utopia where there is a perfect union among life, development, and landscape (Stanley 50). In man's need to escape the cold urbanite world, he expresses nature (and hence himself) in his structures. When Frank Lloyd Wright, often preoccupied with the poetic notions of construction, designed structures such as the Marin County Civic Center, he was not just trying to make an efficient building--he was expressing his vision of America as a "universal, middle-class society" (Gebhard 112, Hertz 4). As people like Wright and Olmstead demonstrate time and time again, the best design of a municipal or corporate structure is not the biggest, or the most efficient, but rather the one that becomes part of the land, and hence, part of us. It is an easy task to design an impressive structure that overpowers the land around it. However, it takes an artist to make a structure that feels like it was always there with the land. Thus, in examining the way man designs his cities and his imposing corporate structures, consider the most important aspect a designer can have in mind--a marriage with the landscape, rather than domination of it.
Starting with the first half of the nineteenth century, urbanization
prompted more Americans to move into cities than ever before (Parker).
With cities having to accommodate unprecedented numbers of densely packed
people, many problems arose, not the least of which was the complete lack of
natural landscapes in the inner cities. Inevitably, city designs had to
adapt to incorporate colorful nature into the increasingly cold and crowded
expanses of man-made grays (Parker). In one of the most drastic displays,
New York City was extensively replanned with meticulous thoroughness.
Costing over one million dollars in the 1920s, the Regional Plan of New York
and its Environs established a new city plan as a ten-volume practical
presentation of the day's most efficient and disciplined city planning
theories (Ward and Zunz 108). By diffusing the cold, unnatural cities
with greenery, man was often able to
successfully incorporate the landscape
with the dense urban areas. The newly constructed cities in the United
States could take advantage of experience gained from past mistakes of
others. However, already established urban "cityscapes" faced a problem
of how to bring nature into an area that was originally designed to push it
out.
While it could be argued that all
landscapes are naturally beautiful, the sites of only a few cities could be
called ideal sites for the union between human architecture and a natural
landscape. However, an aesthetically pleasing landscape does not ensure a
beautiful city, nor does it ensure protection from man's tendency to replace
nature with his own creations rather than adapt to it. Madison,
Wisconsin, for example, has beautiful lakes and parks, in spite of the blatant
disregard of proper landscape architecture in the city. Such a natural
landscape gives Madison a distinction among in the Middle Western United
States, (Nolen N.p.) but that distinction is of the land itself, not of the
method in which city planners incorporated the city into the landscape.
Madison may have been the perfect spot for a beautiful city, but the pioneer
architects did not have foresight. They did not front any lakes, and
except for right around the capitol, they used a standard "gridiron"
layout without regard for the landscape (Nolen N.p.). Both road and rail
entrances to Madison are bleak and unimaginative, not giving visitors a very
pleasant first impression to the city (Nolen N.p.).
A few simple landscaping additions (and sometimes subtractions) to a city plan can do wonders for the inhabitants. For example, small squares of undeveloped land set aside at no cost in the middle of cities prove their value in more ways than one. Not only do they provide green space for public enjoyment and morale, but also increases land value (Nolen N.p.). Wise planners, such as Frederick Law Olmstead, Jr., ensured that even a region as densely populated as New York could maintain green space to preserve man's attachment to the land (Ward and Zunz 111). As perhaps one of the best examples of foreseeing the value of open spaces, New York City and its "environs" managed to preserve three-quarters of its 5,500 square miles as undeveloped park or farm lands, even after the city's population grew beyond 20 million (Ward and Zunz 108). In Savannah, twenty-five small, open squares set aside with no cost at the city's initial planning is now valued at $5,063,500 (Nolen N.p.). In other prime examples, a tract of 42 acres purchased by Hartford, Connecticut in 1954 for $50,000 now values at $1.5 million, and to better aesthetic value, the general plan for the city of Colombia included the over 800 acres of parks (Nolen N.p.).
However, more than individual parks and green spaces are needed to preserve natural landscapes within a city. Sometimes, in an effort to put green areas in areas strategic to the cityscape instead of strategic to the landscape, city designers completely lose the original quality of the land. One New York City real estate agent said:
We began to realize we were cutting up lands upon which people would dwell for ages to come. We were changing wholesale acres into a form from which they could be changed again only at great cost. At this point it would be the simplest thing in the world to set aside, if we were so charitably-minded, some of this land, and leave it as a perpetual open space for generations to play upon (Nolen N.p.).
Madison, for example, has many parks, but they are not properly
connected. Parks and extensive green spaces should be joined by parkways
to form a park system. "Just as the city has a school system, a connected
street system, a sewer system and a water system, so it should have a park
system" (Nolen N.p.). Progressive park systems have been built in cities
such as Hartford, Connecticut, Kansas City, Missouri, Brooklyn, Massachusetts,
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (Nolen N.p.). In
addition, open space does not necessarily have to take the form of parks and
complex parkway systems. Savannah, for instance, contains numerous but
smaller green spaces at major street intersections to achieve a similar
affect (Nolen N.p.).
In addition to green space, a few other factors in civic plans play a
major role in urban-landscape integration. Permitting access to water
fronts improves the visual appeal of a city. In Newport, Rhode Island,
for example, the city permits access to all points of the water (Nolen
N.p.). In addition, planners should try to keep most man-made industrial
icons out of the green and air spaces. Thus, electrical and other utility
wiring should be placed underground and out of sight (Nolen N.p.).
Removing poles from streets not only makes the landscape more appealing, but
also increases the number of choices in tree placement along streets (Nolen
N.p.).
In addition to green space, a few other factors in civic
plans play a major role in urban-landscape integration. Permitting access
to water fronts improves the visual appeal of a city. In Newport, Rhode
Island, for example, the city permits access to all points of the water (Nolen
N.p.). In addition, planners should try to keep most man-made industrial
icons out of the green and air spaces. Thus, electrical and other utility
wiring should be placed underground and out of sight (Nolen N.p.).
Removing poles from streets not only makes the landscape more appealing, but
also increases the number of choices in tree placement along streets (Nolen
N.p.).
Unfortunately, city planners do not always have the luxury of a relatively virgin landscape to work with. In cities that have already established themselves as metropolitan areas, landscape beautification becomes somewhat more complicated.
During the 1850s, city beautification had become a major issue among city planners, even though many American cities were already built and established in structure (Parker). If one travels the cities of the United States, he or she will most likely find a reckless loss of the natural landscape where corporate and government bureaucracy have failed to be concerned with the landscape and rather use efficiency and economy as a primary concern (Nolen N.p.). Obviously, many cities had to redesign themselves to attract inhabitants. H.C. Adams once said, "'When a city or town doubles its population, its original personality is largely lost. It has changed its character as a city, and is no longer confined to the wants it once felt, nor amendable to the rules that once controlled its councils'" (Nolen N.p.).
That quote was implicitly illustrated in New York City from 1929 to 1965, when the city and its "environs" (composed of twenty-two counties in three states) grew from ten-million to over seventeen-million people (Ward and Zunz 108). In one of the most mammoth examples of city redesign, New York City completely recentralized its industrial centers in an effort to improve the quality of life in a massive plan that Thomas Adams termed "diffused recentralization" (Ward and Zunz 113). Moreover, city planners even argued that to preserve the natural beauty of the island of Manhattan, the city should require that new skyscrapers be spaced apart so as not to concentrate too much "cityscape" in one area (Ward and Zunz 114).
In improving a city, one may realize that just as a beautiful, natural landscape does not ensure a beautiful city, a well-prepared landscape plan does not always ensure a beautiful city either. Perhaps the best known example of a massive restructuring to fulfill the dream of a good plan is that of Washington, DC Washington was not always the beautiful city it is today. While the plan, by George Washington and Major L'Enfant, was sound, the city remained almost a century behind the times, as well as an utter eyesore and national disgrace. But in 1871, a territorial government was established which remedied the problem. After that, exhaustive projects to improve the city were implemented. Miles of streets were graded and paved, the now famous shade trees were planted, a sewer system was installed, and the railroad tracks were removed from all important streets. Under the direction of a man named Alexander Robey Shepherd, the city Washington's designers originally planned came to live (Nolen N.p.).
Not all city beautification projects take place on such a massive scale, however. Most cities in the United States, while they face the same general problems, have much smaller land areas and many fewer buildings to consider. In Providence, Rhode Island, for example, 56 buildings had to be removed to obtain a 17-acre sight for a new capitol complex (Nolen N.p. ). And over the course of a decade, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, was not only able to acquire vast amounts of park area and connect them via parkways, but it also secured all of the city's waterfronts and developed playgrounds, among other lasting improvements (Nolen N.p.).
In fact, some civic improvements do not have to involve government projects or mass amounts of public funds at all. For example, in an effort to reverse the damage inflicted by Madison's planners, a volunteer group made a pleasant city park from otherwise useless marsh land (Nolen N.p.). In addition, some very simple and inexpensive civic improvements can increase a city's beauty many fold. For example, strategic addition of trees along streets and in densely industrial areas can break up the cold feeling of a city. Nobody can deny the civic improvement of trees, and they should be looked upon as a valuable civic asset (Nolen N.p.).
As demonstrated thus far, urban design is a very important element in preserving man's natural union with nature, while still drawing the benefits that urbanization provide. However, an equally important aspect of landscape architecture does not involve the design of the city as a whole, but rather the buildings specifically within that city. When dealing with modern-day urbanized cityscapes, one usually things of towering skyscrapers of "larger-than-life" proportions. Unfortunately, these artificial constructions of steel and granite do not offer a natural integration with the land. Thus, one must consider the design of the corporate site, in addition to the design of the city, in integrating urban dwellings with the land.
Every day, corporations become more concerned about
their image, hence they work harder to project a popular physical appearance
(Gagliardi 41). And today more than ever before, both customers and
employees concern themselves with bringing nature into the workplace.
Unifying the corporate environment and the landscape as one has become so
important to corporate image, in fact, that proper use of the land is now
considered a managerial tool, rather than just an aesthetic improvement
(Gagliardi 43). One might even say that the appearance of a corporation
(and thus its perceived credibility) is now just as important as its
performance (Gagliardi 43). Today, someone keeping up with corporate news
will find that annual reports and other corporate publications have numerous
mentions of new (and usually more natural-looking) designs in their facilities
(Gagliardi 45). With such an important emphasis placed on corporate
image, combined with man's natural desire to be part of the land, it is no
wonder that so many corporations strive to merge their building designs with
the landscape.
In an effort to break up the workplace
surroundings and maintain employee unity with the land, many corporations have
relocated their headquarters to suburban landscapes. In quoting D.
Keunen, Stanley reminds people that "'trees along city streets, plants in the
home and garden and . . . the urge to get out of the town on free days
are evident of our needs. The persistence of out-of-town migration, in
spite of the hardships of endless road blockages and queues for public
transportation underlines the strength of our urge'" (Stanley 50).
This idea of corporate architecture not only allows employees to maintain
a relationship with the outdoors, but also increases corporate productivity
from greater employee satisfaction (Stanley 50).
Sensitivity to
the relationship between the exterior structure and the land should be of
paramount concern to the designer of a corporate complex. Losing sight of
the unity between the two and focusing simply on building design (even if the
building is designed to "look like" the landscape), a designer may lose the
characteristics of the landscape he or she was trying to emulate in the first
place (Stanley 46). Thus, in planning the exterior of a corporate site,
many factors must be determined through a thorough site program and site
analysis in reference to the opportunities of the site (Bryant 135-136).
In the outside facade, a designer must take into account many factors of the land, including whether the site is suburban or rural, whether it is built up or level, whether the site has any existing buildings or not, data on the climate, ponds/lakes, vegetation, and energy sources (Bryant 135, 40). For example, in a suburban environment with the gently rolling landscape, a clean and simple form best integrates with the land (Stanley 46). In San Rafael, California, the Marin County government complex merges seamlessly with its landscape by springing from the surrounding hills (Gebhard 111). In this example, from the freeway, the building is not only visually appealing, but also projects a futuristic (and thus more credible) image to the public (Gebhard 111). However, if a company constructed a large, imposing facade which would be better suited for the heart of a major city, the building would overpower the landscape and completely detract any attention from the landscape to the construction.
A site planner must also factor points of access,
views, topography, solar orientation, vegetation, orientation, watercourses,
and soil conditions. For example, a site with poor soil conditions would
severely limit the useable area. The site analysis determines the
location of buildings, pattern for vehicular circulation, communication
patterns, and deployment of parking areas (Bryant 137, 39). In
order to preserve the feeling of a landscape after construction, a corporate
architectural plan must take several points in consideration:
After taking all of these environmental and landscape factors into account, a designer can draw up rough sketches showing the general layout of a corporate complex (Bryant 138). In designing the landscape for a corporation, the areas between buildings is just as important as the landscaping around them (Bryant 139). From the point of view of landscape architecture, perhaps the most important aspect of designing a corporate site is making the building look natural in the landscape. In some cases, a corporation even adds to the landscaping to make its corporate site appear more natural. For example, some corporate headquarters in the Great Lakes region of the United States went so far as to institute artificial ponds to flow better with the surrounding geography (Stanley 37). Such additions promote regional integration and harmony with the landscape (Stanley 37).
Sometimes, however, corporate designers can become so preoccupied with establishing unity between the corporate buildings and the land, that other equally important issues such as traffic circulation and building orientation become isolated projects (Stanley 43). In such cases, "if the natural site orientation is not utilized or incorporated into the circulation plan, the individual can become confused and disoriented, the dominance of the landscape will be spoiled, and the architectural significance can be lost" (Stanley 43). Thus, when man views the integration between structure and landscape as a separate idea from complex designs, he often defeats the purpose of integrating the land and the structure all together.
Unfortunately, man can also completely forget about adapting to the natural landscape, and instead, completely redesign it. Oftentimes, building designs are finalized before site analysis is completed, resulting in a building which does not take full advantage of the landscape's visual appeal. Whirlpool Corporate Headquarters, an otherwise adequate landscape design, disregarded its relationship to Lake Michigan. In doing so, it loses a potentially beautiful view in the process (Stanley 37). In addition, sometimes designers are so preoccupied with projecting a proper corporate image (often to the point of corporate "vanity"), drawing attention to the structures takes paramount concern instead of integrating the structure with the land. As a result, many corporations focus on projecting a massive road front image, even if it results in a total lack of unity with the land. For example, the Baxter Travenol corporate headquarters is designed to project an impressive, one-sided front facing a nearby freeway, ignoring most other factors. As a result, individuals become disoriented when trying to find the entrance to the building because it does not follow the landscape in any way. Many natural signs that the designers could have taken advantage of would have pointed a "red flag" to the front door. However, because of their two-dimensional thinking, first-time visitors do not know where to go after arriving on corporate grounds (Stanley 43). The Baxter Travenol Corporate Headquarters points out another serious concern; when designers are too preoccupied with the visual connection of the corporate site, designing to promote the physical experience is often forgotten, leaving visitors disoriented.
In contrast, the Karl Kundert Medical Center in downtown San Luis Obisco, California, takes full advantage of the natural landscape and brings that landscape into the building design itself. Seeming almost to rise out of the land rather than sit atop it, the grove of trees and nearby creek turn the area not into just another urbanized lot, but a green oasis with a magical building hidden in the trees (Gebhard 89).
However, the external landscape design of a
corporation is only part of establishing a more natural facade; one must also
focus on bringing that image inside the workplace (Gagliardi 41). The
land determines the overall shape of individual buildings within a complex, and
hence the arrangement of rooms within the buildings (Bryant 139). Thus,
the land affects the interior design of a corporate complex, in addition to the
exterior arrangement and landscaping.
In companies such as British Railway, internal design is so important that everything down to the knives and forks used in dining cars are custom designed to reflect the desired corporate image (Gagliardi 42). Obviously, when union with nature has become so important in corporate culture in recent years, corporations such as these make a serious effort to bring nature into the workplace.
Corporations are slowly becoming more aware of how interior designs affect employee performance. Thus, inclusion of nature within corporate buildings is finding its way to the top of facility improvement agendas (Gagliardi 46). Even if it involves artificially simulating nature, corporations go to extraordinary lengths to bring the feel of the land into the corporate environment. For example, Frank Lloyd Wright designed the Morris store in San Francisco, California, with diffused lighting through lighted glass bricks. Not only does the natural-feeling lighting, combined with interior vegetation, make employees and customers feel more like they are outside, but it also gives the building distinction in an otherwise cold cityscape (Gebhard 67). Bringing nature into a building can also help a corporation to project their desired atmosphere. For example, to help calm people entering the aforementioned Karl Kundert Medical Clinic, the walls leading up to a high ceiling was patterned with wood panels to continue intimate feeling of a forest from the outside (Gebhard 89). The isolated green island in the middle of a cold city has continued its "hidden in the forest" motif even inside. In this consistent statement, Wright demonstrates that proper integration between the land and the structure of the building can be a physical experience, not just a visual connection. Likewise, the fantasy theme of the Marin Country government complex is carried out into its interior by making use of extensive skylights. Instead of becoming a separate, unnatural environment, one enters a romantic world unto itself (Gebhard 111-112).
Perhaps what these very successful designs
demonstrate is that what sets cutting-edge corporate buildings apart from all
others is no longer maximum efficiency as a building (nearly all modernist
buildings achieve that already), but rather how well the company can infuse the
surrounding land into the office space (Gagliardi 46). Take ABV corporate
headquarters in Sweden, for example:
These pioneering corporations have a unique opportunity to be leaders in establishing better design practices that have greater union with the landscape (Stanley 51), and along with it, a better understanding of man's need to be part of the land. Hence, corporate designers attempt to maintain a union with the land both inside and outside a corporate building to obtain a maximum experience for the individual.
As this paper has shown, the greatest achievements in designing urban
structure is to make them feel like a natural part of the landscape. In
making structures parallel the land, man puts himself where he was born to be,
even if it means being on the tenth floor of a Manhattan skyscraper. With
much research and planning, and even more courage to look at himself in the
mirror and see how he is a part of the land, urban life has become, and
continues to become, part of the landscape.
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Gould, Bryant Putnam. Planning the new Corporate
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Hertz, David
Michael. Frank Lloyd Wright: In Word and Form. New
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Hunt, William
Dudley. Total Design: The Architecture of Welton Becket and
Associates. Rio de Janeiro: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1972.
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http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/ModelCity/ModelCity_top.html#xfrontispiece,
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Parker, Christopher Glynn. "Frederick Law Olmstead".
http://www.gwu.edu/~geog/olm/olmain.html,
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Stanley, Jon Michael. Suburban Corporate Headquarter Design
and the Natural Suburban Landscape. LSU: Thesis, 1987
Eds.
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City, 1900-1940. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
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Copyright © Van Goodwin, 1998 Contact Van